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Ethnography? (What) Does it have to do with Language Education?
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The present paper appeared as a result of being part of the writing team of a postgraduate distance learning course Intercultural Studies for Language Teachers - initiated and carried out with the assistance of the British Council and the Teacher Training Institute, Sofia. Being among the tutors and assessors for the first run of the course, as well as practicing teachers of English, has made it possible for us to demonstrate our ideas of the significance of ethnography for language education in practice.
Recent trends in language education show that language learning is becoming largely determined in cultural terms. Therefore language learners are assigned a variety of new roles which have resulted in a number of ‘label’-like attributions. It is fashionable today to call language students ‘cultural mediators’, ‘border crossers’, ‘negotiators of meaning’, ’intercultural speakers’ and so on. Although these names might sound a bit pretentious and exotic to some educationalists, they inevitably imply that language learning has changed its orientation and priorities. Drawing on the interrelation between language learning and cultural studies we shall discuss in this paper one of the latest names added to the above list - ‘language learners as ethnographers’. Over the last decade ethnography has been adopted as a research method in language education and a systematic approach to the period abroad, which is, at present, common for a large number of language and non-language students throughout Europe. Special programmes have been developed (e.g. Thames Valley University, West London, see Roberts et al, 2001) aiming at the integration of language and cultural experiences in which the methods of anthropology help students become ethnographers when abroad or in their native context. Taking this into consideration, as well as in accordance with the constantly changing educational situation in Bulgaria, our aim is to introduce ethnography as a research method for use in language teaching. One of our purposes as language teachers is to enable students to reflect on their own culture and gain insights into other culture(s) in order to communicate successfully. The latter can be achieved through developing ethnographic skills - the skills required to recognise, observe and interpret modes of individual and collective behaviour, as well as to collect and analyse related impressions and data in order to understand aspects of culture(s).
For this reason we are going to concentrate on the existing assumptions of ethnography and try to broaden them by establishing an understanding of ethnography for language education. Ethnographic principles and methodology together with its advantages will also be presented. The key question we are going to consider is why ethnography is relevant to language education in general and to the teacher’s own practice in particular. Finally you will be given an idea of ethnographic applications through exchange visits as a ‘par excellence’ ethnographic experience for language education.
One of the authors who point out the importance of ethnography for language education and who we are going to refer to in this paper is Lisanne Wilken. As she (1995: 77) comments ethnography can loosely be transcribed as the study of culture.
Establishing the assumptions of ethnography for language education There is a close relationship between the disciplines of anthropology and linguistics - and more specifically between the sub-disciplines of social anthropology and sociolinguistics. In recent decades the fundamental method of anthropology - ethnography, a method for studying aspects of social and cultural life in the field, has become a popular approach to social research.
It is important for us to differentiate between ethnography in the discipline of anthropology and ethnography as a method in language education, as our task is not to become or prepare professional anthropologists. What we can give our students is what Pocock (1975: 1-29) calls ‘an anthropological sensibility’. Since we are teachers our concern is to develop in students an awareness of ethnographic method in order to enable them carry out either small-scale ethnographic research or an ethnographic study abroad as part of their language education. This is the centre of the idea of the social anthropologist living in and studying a particular community and the idea of the student learning about new social and cultural experiences while abroad or in a familiar setting.
The above issues are discussed in Language Learners as Ethnographers (Roberts et al, 2001) - an innovative book describing a new approach to teaching and learning cultural studies. The relation of language learning to ethnography, is interpreted by the authors in the following way:
While any discipline is concerned with particular ways of seeing the world, based upon particular epistemologies and associated concepts, ethnography is a method for doing fieldwork and writing up the results. It is used in disciplines other than anthropology, such as sociolinguistics, sociology and education studies although its foundations are in anthropology...
Whereas the professional anthropologist or sociologist will use ethnography for the purpose of researching and writing a monograph on a particular group or set of practices, we argue in this book that language teachers and students can use ethnography to develop their cultural learning in general, and their capacity to mediate between different cultural groups in particular. Thus, the purpose of ethnography in this context is to integrate language and cultural processes ... (Roberts et al, 2001: 11-12)
We think it is crucial to have this distinction in mind in order to focus better on ethnography for language education and limit the danger of terminological misunderstandings. (First, the terms ethnography and anthropology are sometimes used interchangeably in the literature. Second, ethnography is a method, widely used in many disciplines, but also it is a product, the written account of some aspects of social and cultural practices.)
What is Ethnography from the point of view of language education? During the training seminars when implementing the Cultural Studies Syllabus (British Council, 1998) language teachers were asked the question “What does Ethnography mean to you?” They came up with a variety of answers which showed that for most Bulgarian teachers ethnography is associated with descriptions of the past (rituals, beliefs, customs and traditions, etc.). It could be explained by the fact that:
In the past, the terms ethnology and ethnography have been applied respectively to the study and description of the so-called “primitive societies”. Indeed dictionary definitions still reflect early ethnocentric biases... Today ethnology and ethnographies (written descriptions) are no longer concerned exclusively with the far-away and exotic but also examine the near, the more familiar and the modern. (Damen, 1987: 57)
This definition gives a comparison between the old and the new idea of applying ethnography. It is important for us, as it states that there is not a single way of doing ethnography and that nowadays the traditional interest in the “far-away” and “exotic” is being replaced by the interest in social life and everyday cultural settings. Or as Jordan and Roberts (2000: 1) wittily put it:
‘...both traditional anthropology which involved making the strange familiar, and modern urban ethnography which involves making the familiar strange’ are the two perspectives that allow us to gain a better understanding of the nature of cultural patterns and practices’
The above ideas are summarised by Wilken (1995: 78-79) where the author answers the key question - What is Ethnography and ethnographic research? and how these concepts have developed and changed over the last century. Ethnography is defined as a sub-discipline of anthropology - the study of man. Formally it has to do with the descriptions of the different peoples, their way of living, their social relations and conditions, their norms and the values upon which anthropological theories are developed. Wilken also points out that the two terms are used interchangeably, probably because the two disciplines were founded towards the end of the 19th century. The core of author’s theoretical views is found in the following quotation:
What characterises ethnographic research today is not so much the settings which it is conducted or the issues investigated. It is rather the methodology employed. Ethnography distinguishes itself among the social sciences for research methods rather than for its field of interest. These research methods were founded while ethnographers mainly studied relatively small social entities (the ‘primitive’ societies) but have proven valuable in the study of any kind of social and cultural setting. (Wilken, 1995: 78-79)
Now that we have introduced you to ethnography as a discipline and research method we would like to underline once again that the present article is concerned with the contemporary understanding of ethnography. Dealing with the ‘modern’ and ‘familiar’ is more important for us than the “good old”, oriented to the ‘past’ and ’the primitive’, traditional way of doing the ethnography.
Drawing on Pocock (1975), Jordan and Roberts (2000: 4) conclude that we can successfully be ethnographers within our own communities and in so doing can make explicit to ourselves the so-called ‘personal anthropology’.
In other words we can reflect on our own taken-for-granted assumptions and values and begin to see that they are social and cultural constructions and not ‘natural’. This is a fundamental principle of social anthropology and central to its ethnographic methods. The analysis of the natural and the search for patterns and formulations beneath the surface are supported by a conceptual framework which is an essential part of the course. It is of little value to teach ethnographic methods unless there is a coherent way of looking at what these methods are for. (Jordan and Roberts, 2000: 4)
Main characteristics of Ethnography Principles What follows is based on Louise Damen, one of the earliest, most important language educators who deals with ethnography from culture learning perspective. Writing about the principles of ethnography she draws on Spradley.
As Spradley states: “There are as many ways to do ethnography as there are ethnographers” (Spradley, 1979, in Damen, 1997: 58). The highly structured and complex organization of ethnographic research, as practiced by professional anthropologists, has been popularised without being trivialised by pragmatic ethnographers. The pragmatic ethnographic approach to culture learning involves simulating the processes of exploring, describing and understanding an unknown culture by means of actual ethnographic inquiry, contrastive analysis of real cultural groups, and contact with real bearers of the culture. It is simulation and role-play taken out of the classroom and practiced in the real world of the cultural traveller. It is a theory grounded in practice. Such a practical approach approximates to “natural” ways of dealing with new cultures.
The bringing of cultural patterns and themes under scrutiny, together with methods of learning and discovery should shed light on the nature of culture and the difficulties, hazards, and rewards of gaining knowledge of the cultural worlds of others. (After Damen, 1987: 54)
Spradley (1979) defines ethnography in its modern guise as a “body of knowledge that includes research techniques, ethnographic theory, and hundreds of cultural descriptions.” The central task of the ethnographer is seen as connected with these descriptions. They can also be seen as a result of what ethnography generally involves - informant interviewing or as Spradley suggests “learning from people”. Current ethnographic research is usually guided by a set of assumptions concerning culture, cultural themes and patterns.
Drawing on Damen (1987) the general principles of ethnography could be defined in the following way:
In practice, adherence to these principles has meant that:
Ethnographic Methodology Ethnography is a research method where the researcher tries to enter the culture of a particular group and to report on its activities and values from the inside. Describing a culture in its own cultural terms and from the point of view of the insider dominated early ethnographic field studies. This has been called an -emic approach in contrast to the -etic one. The terms -emic and -etic, are abbreviated versions of the terms, phonemic and phonetic and were used by the researchers in the analysis of unknown languages. The contrast between them was later found true for culture.
In contrast to the Etic approach, an Emic one is in essence valid for only one language (or one culture) at a time... An etic analytical standpoint... might be called “external” or “alien”, since for etic purposes the analyst stands “far enough away” from or “outside” of a particular culture to see its separate events, primarily in relation to their similarities and their differences, as compared to the events of other cultures (Pike, 1954: 8-10 in Damen 1987: 60)
As Damen (1987:60) states, an -emic approach encourages closer listening to and rejection of foregone ethnocentric interpretations, classifications, and evaluations of different behaviour, verbal and nonverbal. It is based on the assumption that some understanding of native categories of meaning must precede cross-cultural comparison if apple/orange types of errors are to be avoided.
Although still widely used in modern practice, the -emic/ -etic distinction is often supplemented with other methods of analysis including participant observation and quantitative studies. These methods are employed during ethnographic research which, like in most other disciplines, consists of a practical and a theoretical part. The practical part is connected with gathering and identifying data, the theoretical part consists in reflecting and interpreting the data in order to throw light on the issues investigated. The procedures during the two parts of ethnographic research typically involve six key stages. Ethnographic methodology as described up to now applies to both the old and the new approaches to ethnographic application and research.
What are the key stages of ethnographic research? The most important stages of ethnographic research are the following:
Each of the above key stages of ethnographic research consists of a number of substages and procedures which reveal the complexity of ethnographer’s work.
In order to collect data, ethnographers usually do fieldwork. It means that the ethnographer observes and participates in people’s everyday life for a period of time. He/she watches what goes on, participates in what happens, listens to what is said, asks questions and takes whatever field notes are relevant to the focus of the research. While doing fieldwork the ethnographer acts as a participant-observer. On one hand he/she relies on personal experience when observing people, places, behaviour, language. On the other - it is necessary for the ethnographer to keep a critical distance at the same time as being immersed into the culture studied, in order to get a real insight. Participation and observation are interrelated and considered to be equally important strategies for obtaining information and in determining the context in which the data should be understood. They cannot be separated because only by observing and reflecting, while participating, is it possible to make sense of what is experienced.
Finding the most useful sources of information, or informants, is another requirement for successfully carrying out ethnographic research. Ethnographic analysis depends on what the ethnographer can make people say, what they will let him/ her participate in, what s/he is able to see and hear. Therefore the personal relationship between the ethnographer and the informants is of crucial importance. It can be viewed in terms of mutual exchange, which of course depends on the context of the situation. When initiating contact and conducting an interview asking the right kind of questions is crucial for understanding a cultural situation.
Writing up the ethnographic account, on the basis of the field notes made earlier, is the logical continuation of the research, which itself then needs evaluation and presentation of the data collected, including interpretation of the interviews conducted, avoiding judgement. Everything in our life can be viewed from its own perspective. The aim of ethnography is not to judge which perspective is right or wrong it is to figure out how all the different perspectives within a given social setting make sense when taken together. What ethnographers are looking for are not stereotyped sentences of the kind “Italians are corrupt” or “Englishmen have a sense of fair-play”. On the contrary - they are searching for different patterns within a society or a social setting; for shared or common assumptions about the ‘world’ and for the norms and values according to which people conduct their lives. In different words ethnographers formulate cultural hypotheses reflecting patterns relative to expected and/or appropriate behaviour.
Differentiation of qualitative and quantitative data is also essential for the work of the ethnographer. Qualitative data includes observations of what people do, their views, opinions. It can be in verbal form or in the form of written notes or recorded interviews. Quantitative data is anything that can be put in numerical form, usually because it is possible to measure it in some way.
To sum up, an ethnographer’s work is connected with going through various stages such as participant observation which can be overt or covert; making mental or written field notes; reflecting on them; writing accounts, maintaining all the time a marginal position.
Where can ethnographic research be conducted? One of the positive sides to ethnography is that there are hardly any limitations as to where one can carry out ethnographic research. As long as the investigator is clear about what features of his/ her own or another culture under research, as long as he/she is acquainted with relevant ethnographic methods and techniques, the research itself can be done virtually anywhere since culturally specific features, beliefs or practices are revealed in any setting.
Survey of data collection proceduresObviously, an ethnographer’s task is not a simple one. Being involved her/himself in the events, having sometimes to establish not only confidence in a relationship with the social group under study but a more informal, friendly relationship with people, is not enough. The researcher has to be equipped with a number of methodological tools for collecting data, so that s/he can assert that the latter are reliable or that the ethnographer’s own personal beliefs and prejudices do not interfere with the fieldwork.
The choice of an appropriate procedure depends on the relationship of the ethnographer and the speech community, the type of data being collected, and the particular situation in which fieldwork is being conducted. It is essential that ethnographic field procedures should be so designed as to get around the recorders’ biased perceptions, and that they should be grounded in the investigation of communication in natural contexts.
Among the most widely used ethnographic data collection procedures are introspection, observation, participant-observation and interviewing.
1. Introspection is a means of data collection only about one’s own speech community, but it is an important skill to develop for that purpose. It helps establish an awareness of one’s own cultural self. The greatest danger is that it can be too subjective.
2. Participant-Observation is the most common method of collecting ethnographic data - both the researcher’s own or another’s. It involves immersion into a culture and observing it while being an active participant in the communication process. Freeing oneself as much as humanly possible from the filter of one’s own cultural experience is important for the carrying out of successful participant-observation. It can also sometimes be problematic in terms of distancing from the situation, as the researcher might affect it.
3. Observation without participation is seldom adequate, but there are times when it is an appropriate data collection procedure. Some sites are explicitly constructed to allow unobtrusive observation without the active participation of the researcher, such as laboratory classrooms with one-way mirrors. It consists of observing without being disruptive to the situation. One of the greatest problems is its difficulty in setting up.
4. Interviewing may contribute a wide range of cultural information. It is a useful supplement to participant-observation. Types of questions and interviewing styles may be so different that few overall generalizations can be made. Still, the most common ethnographic interview is composed of open-ended questions. These are appropriate for collecting data on virtually every aspect of communication. It may be difficult to contrive the natural setting for an interview and there is a danger of interpreting the data subjectively (after Saville-Troike,1989: 117-135).
What other types of data can be ethnographic data? As Wilken points out ‘getting access to information may be one of the most important and most constant issues of ethnography’ (Wilken, 1995: 81) since ‘the ethnographic analysis depends on what the ethnographer can make people tell him, what they will let him participate in, what he is able to see, and what he is able to hear’. She argues further that there is no such thing as ‘objective’ information or a ‘neutral’ fieldworker. The accounts about an issue are usually given by different informants according to their specific views and under specific circumstances. That is why an ethnographer should try to take into consideration the specific context of his data gathering.
Another way of increasing the objectivity of an ethnographic analysis is to consider several other types of data, which can also help in the formation of working hypotheses and the process of drawing conclusions. Such types of additional data may include legal information, social organisation, common knowledge, data on the linguistic code, material artefacts, beliefs about language use along with some others. (See Saville-Troike 1989: 114-117.)
Why is ethnography relevant for language education?
What are the main advantages and drawbacks of ethnography as a research method? After so much talk about ethnography as a research method applicable to the study of culture and about its most important data gathering tools and techniques, it is only natural for a language teacher what the connection between ethnography and language education is. In order to answer it we would like to outline some of the advantages of doing it. These are namely: an opportunity
To sum up, fieldwork is ‘difficult and time-consuming’, demanding a ‘high degree of empathy for those under study’ and an ‘acceptance of the new and strange’. Resulting from this, a lot of effort should be put into developing not only tolerance to others’ views and behaviours but in the development of the necessary research skills as well, because ‘anthropologists are made, not born’. Furthermore, ‘cultural searching and theory can often be both painful and disturbing for all concerned’. (Damen, 1986: 55)
One of the major dangers facing ethnographers even if they are well-equipped methodologically, is the possibility of allowing their own cultural bias to determine the way they see their informants, the way they do fieldwork. There is always the chance to make prejudiced judgements in the case of an observer or make mistakes as a participant. Such mistakes cannot always be avoided but as Lisanne Wilken (1995: 84) points out, mistakes can as well be turned into an advantage as the clashes between the two cultures (the researcher’s own one and the informant’s one) are ‘culturally significant’ and may lead to valid conclusions about ‘values’ and ‘rules’.
The opportunity to observe or participate (or both) in everyday situations combined with other typically ethnographic techniques (like interviewing) can be regarded as a further advantage, since it gives an opportunity not just to read about culture but experience it in depth despite its requiring vast knowledge of different research methods as well as knowledge of the target group.
And last but not least the ethnographic approach gives one the opportunity to explore in a more detailed and profound way one’s own cultural patterns of behaviour. An ethnographer can be him/ herself a source of information as well as a critical observer, questioning the obvious, trying to interpret the how and why that stand behind what is easily seen thus experiencing the chance to understand his/ her home culture better which inevitably leads to a better understanding of others’ cultures.
Why should language educators use ethnography?As it has been pointed out earlier, ethnography as a method of research is not reserved to anthropology only. Its results can be exploited for different purposes and viewed from different perspectives. It has also been mentioned that ethnography has great potential to facilitate and make cultural teaching and learning more effective. Some of the leading educationalists in the field of cultural studies argue that it should be incorporated in the language classroom not because language teachers must become professional ethnographers but because by learning to observe by participation, they deepen their understanding of cultural phenomena, of themselves as well as of others and thus help their students acquire better skills for intercultural communication.
As early as the 1980s Louise Damen suggests that there is a way to enhance cross-cultural awareness and encourage intercultural communication better than just doing role plays, cultural simulations, workshops, readings, lectures, visits and so on. This ‘more practical approach’ she calls ‘pragmatic ethnography’. Since teachers and students alike are ‘subject to culture shock’ and ‘indulge in stereotyping’ it is essential to equip them with a method of exploring and analysing cultural practices. In her view doing ethnography is relevant to the goals of language and culture education because:
More recently, in the late 1990s, cultural educationalists like Michael Byram (in Byram ed, 1997: 13) claim that linguistic competence is not enough to develop intercultural competence, that it is far more beneficial if learners are exposed to ‘experiential learning where learners can experience situations which make demands upon their emotions and feelings and then reflect upon that experience and its meaning for them’ Guided by such an idea, some education specialists combine their language education programmes with an ethnographic approach to the study of the target language and culture like the ones discussed in some of the chapters of Face to Face; Learning ‘Language and Culture’ through Visits and exchanges (Byram ed. 1997). For a more detailed discussion see Celia Roberts’ ‘The Year abroad as an Ethnographic Experience’ (Roberts in Byram ed., 1997) and in the newly-published Language Learners as Ethnographers (Roberts et al 2001) Such programmes emphasize one more reason for the significance of ethnography - the chance to investigate the home culture. They suggest that ethnographic research should start with researching one’s own culture first because it gives a good grounding in questioning the obvious. By making the known strange the amateur ethnographer learns to look into practices which may have appeared routine, and after analysing them learns to decode their cultural significance which may have been dismissed or underestimated as ‘ordinary’ or ‘banal’ until that moment. Such an approach deepens one’s awareness of one’s own cultural identity, which, on the other hand widens skills to successfully accept, interpret and communicate with that of others. Finally, let us consider what the participants in the first run of the Intercultural Studies for Language Teachers postgraduate course find most useful about doing ethnography. After doing ethnographic observation of a symphonic concert and the following writing up of what they found out following the procedures outlined above they were invited to evaluate the experience. They were asked to use the method of introspection and discuss the latter in view of the possible importance of ethnography to their awareness of themselves as well as its relevance to their classroom practice. Below are some of their unedited written responses.
To sum up, teachers see the real worth of doing ethnography in the directness of the experience, in the opportunity to find out about cultural patterns of behaviour by being involved yourself in the data collection process rather than simply reading about what someone else has discovered. Another aspect appreciated by them is the opportunity to learn more about themselves in a better-structured way. Last, but not least, in the teachers’ opinion, ethnography will help them teach cultural issues in the classroom.
How to enrich a stay abroad using the ethnographic approach? Along with the processes of economic and political globalisation and opening of state frontiers in Europe, international communications are becoming much easier and commonplace. There are more opportunities for foreign language students to practice their linguistic and cultural competence in a genuine environment, out of the classroom, even abroad. More and more students are visiting foreign countries on exchange visit programmes or simply as tourists. These create another opportunity for using the ethnographic approach to studying culture - while on an exchange visit, for instance.
When learners understand, even if partially, the perspective of other people, and simultaneously acquire a reflective perspective on themselves, their means of communication and interaction with the others are profoundly affected. They acquire not only the ability to manipulate the language with some degree of fluency and accuracy, they also acquire the potential to create a relationship between the two perspectives, between the two cultures involved. They have the potential to see each in terms of the other, to anticipate conflict and misunderstanding, to establish a meaningful relationship with speakers of another language and culture…. (Byram 1997 in Byram ed.1997: 8)
If we want our students to be successful intercultural speakers (as defined by Byram) we have to prepare them to question what they read, see, hear, and to try to analyse it, although being immersed in a new reality, having to understand other people and to communicate with them, can be quite stressful. Ethnography can provide an approach to understanding other people better and, consequently, to communicating in a more successful way, softening at the same time culture shock and helping them be something more than ‘tourists’ when they are abroad. As it is clear from a number of publications on the topic (like Barro et al (1998 in Byram and Fleming eds 1998), Roberts in Jensen et al (1995) and others) ethnography can help develop students’ cultural awareness in a number of ways.
Ethnographic research done abroad may have the following positive results and students:
In conclusion, assuming an ethnographic point of view to what happens around us, to who we are as well as to other people’s cultural practices and routines, can help us and our students become better culture learners and interpreters. It can also help to make the most of a stay abroad, turning the latter into an invaluable lived-through insight into (an)other culture(s).
We are convinced that being introduced to and accepting ethnography involve certain ‘perceptual and procedural challenges’ (Davcheva & Fay in Beaumont & O’Brien eds., 2000; 105). But, once practically tried out, it is never to be abandoned as it offers a chance to learn through observing and experiencing which leads to broadening one’s cultural understanding.
BIBLIOGRAPHY The British Council (1998) Branching Out: A Cultural Studies Syllabus, Bulgaria/ TiliaBeaumont, M. and O’Brien, T. (eds.) (2000) Collaborative Research in Second Language Education, Stoke, Trentham Books Barro, A., Jordan, Sh. and Roberts, C., (1998) ‘Cultural Practice in Everyday Life: the Language Learner as Ethnographer’ in Byram, M. and Fleming, M. (eds.) Byram, M. (ed.) (1997) Face to Face; Learning “Language- and- Culture” through visits and exchanges, London, CILT Byram, M. and Fleming, M. (eds.) (1998) Language Learning in Intercultural Perspective; Approaches through drama and ethnography, Cambridge, CUP Byram, M. (1997) ‘Introduction; towards a pedagogical framework for visits and exchanges’ in Byram, M. (ed.) Damen, L. (1987) Culture Learning: The Fifth Dimention in the Language Classroom, Reading, MA, Addison Wesley Publishing Company Davcheva, L. and Edgington, B. (1998) Implementing the Cultural Studies Syllabus: Trainers Guidebook, unpublished Davcheva, L. & Fay, R. (2000) ‘Disseminating a Cultural Studies Syllabus for foreign language teaching in Bulgaria: collaborative classroom research’ in Beaumont, M. &O’Brien, T eds Gilbert, N. (ed.) (1993) Researching Social Life, London, Sage Publications Hammersley, M. and Atkinson, P. (1995) Ethnography: Principles and Practice, 2nd edition, London, Routledge Jensen, A, Jaeger, K and Lorentsen, A., (eds.) (1995) Intercultural Competence II, A New Challenge for Language Teachers and Trainers in Europe, Aalborg University Press Jordan, Sh. and Roberts, C. (2000) Introduction to Ethnography for Language Learners, LARA: Learning and Residence Abroad, Oxford and London, Oxford Brookes University and Thames Valley University/ King’s College London Margaritova M, ‘Ethnographic Analysis of Fortune Telling’ in Netnews, issue 8, February, 2000, Sofia, the British Council Pike, K. (1954) Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Behaviour (Volume1), Glendale, CA: Summer Institute of Linguistics Pocock, D. (1975) Understanding Social Anthropology, London, Hodder and Stoughton Roberts, C. (1995) ‘Language and Cultural Learning; An Ethnographic Approach’ in ’ in Jensen, A, Jaeger, K and Lorentsen, A., (eds) Roberts, C. (1996) ‘Ethnographic approaches to cultural learning’ in Wadham-Smith, N. (ed.) Roberts, C. (1997) ‘The Year Abroad as an Ethnographic Experience’ in Byram, M. (ed.) Roberts, C., Byram, M., Barro, A., Jordan, Sh. and Street, B. (2001) Language Learners as Ethnographers, Multilingual Matters Ltd, Savile-Troike, M. (1989) The Ethnography of Communication: An Introduction, 2nd ed Blackwell Sercu, L. (1998) ‘In-service teacher training and the acquisition of intercultural competence’ in Byram, M. and Fleming, M. (eds.) Spradley, J. (1979) The Ethnographic Interview, New York, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston Wadham-Smith, N. (ed.) (1995) British Studies Now; Anthology Issues 1-5, British Council Wilken, L. (1995) ‘What is Ethnography and How Can it Be Used to Raise Cultural Awareness?’ in Jensen, A, Jaeger, K and Lorentsen, A., (eds) |
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