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Women’s Quest for Empowerment in the Pop-Music Culture of the 1990’s
Beata Maruszak


 

INTRODUCTION

Everyone needs to recognise the important role of the media in creating, perpetuating and challenging t modes of femininity and masculinity and in the creation and perpetuation of specific power relations between the genders. The general observation made by feminists is that the variety of female models in the media, as compared to male ones, has been quite limited. The vast majority of media representations of women are male creations because women have largely been excluded from shaping those representations. The dominant stereotypes of women in the popular media, as traced historically through the twentieth century, fall into three main categories: the ‘vamp’ type popular in the early decades, the ‘dumb blonde’ in the middle and the ‘superwoman’ in the last quarter.[1] In the post-modern period, however, starting roughly in the 1970’s, women have been given more chance to formulate thoughts about themselves and express them through popular culture forms. It has been happening due to the post-modern breakdown of traditional boundaries such as between popular and elite culture, or between masculinity and femininity, and experiments with and multiplying forms of representation. These phenomena have had a strong impact on pop-music culture which has always been an arena for powerful self-expression. An interesting example of the post-modern freedom of expression in popular music are works of female performers exposing women’s creativity and musical genius. This paper, inspired by indigenous lyrics and performances of selected British women artists, seeks to examine a sample of the more controversial and innovative representatives of the female music scene in the nineties.

A short historical survey will show the evolution of the female pop-music scene in Britain from the 1970’s to the 1990’s. The most noticeable change has happened over the past three decades - throughout the post-modern period as women have steadily broken away from stereotypes that society and the music industry have imposed on them. Since the 1970’s the notion that rock is exclusively male and that sexual roles are fixed has been falling apart. Male and female bands began copying each other’s style on stage. A sex-theme became the obsession of the 1970’s and found its powerful outlet in the copulatory boogie-woogie pulse of disco music represented by numerous female groups and vocalists, for example Donna Summer or Sister Sledge. They adopted a sexy, kittenish style which expected from them by male producers. When the revolution of punk-rock music came, there emerged the image of a rebellious, punkish woman who was anti-fashion, anti-sex and generally anti-mainstream conventions. The legends of the female punk movement are Debbie Harry, the American vocalist of “Blondie”, whose striking visual appearance (ripped vinyl minidress with razors hanging from the hems) stood in clear opposition to the ‘dumb blonde’ stereotype and the English female band the “Slits” known to have subverted conventional ideas of sexuality and beauty. Some other controversial rock artists who shocked the public with their bold looks and performances were Chrissie Hynde, Siouxsie Sioux, Poly Styrene and Patty Smith.[2]

The decade of the eighties was dominated by the advent of MTV - a music channel which offered global visibility and which by the mid-eighties turned into a tough and sexist master of women performers. The female groups launched at that time, “Bananarama” and the “Go-go’s,” became new MTV stars, typical commercial constructions - bouncy, sexy, corporate and non-threatening. They sang in agreement with Cindy Lauper’s anthem Girls just want to have fun.[3]

The late eighties witnessed a change in the way women decided to represent themselves on the stage and a fresh phenomenon was the appearance of Madonna. Madonna’s style incorporated mainstream pop, feminist issues and a rising cult of celebrity. Her call to Express yourself offered empowering experience to millions of her female fans. Madonna and Annie Lenox (another MTV star who has adopted an extravagant and mannish looking image) are said to have exposed the female as a social construction that can be applied or deconstructed at a whim. Other controversial performers of the eighties were Susanne Vega and who took up social issues (“My name is Luka”) and so-called ‘women troubadours’: Eddie Brickel or Tracy Chapman, whose poetry-driven lyrics were significant departures from the MTV ‘fun-oriented’ style.[4] There was also Yoko Ono from the sixties with her influential track “Woman is the Nigger of the World” All of the performers presented here have in different ways contributed to the shape of the British women’s pop-music scene of the nineties.

This paper focuses on the most innovative of female pop-music works of the 1990’s, examining videos and lyrics which can be considered expressions of women’s empowerment. The term “women’s empowerment” means a reclamation of power, confidence and dignity which seems to have been largely lost in the patriarchal society.

The research material consists of the most recent videos as well as songs’ lyrics. It is analysed at two levels:

  • the visual level - videos,
  • the verbal level - lyrics.

The methodological approach follows from the duality of the material as the visual side of pop videos requires semiotic analysis. “Semiotics is an attempt to apply scientific principles to the study of signs in order to explain how meaning is produced.”[5] The paper attempts to show how the meaning of women’s empowerment is constructed by examining visual signs such as setting, props, body language, actions and outward appearance. The categories of cinematic techniques such as camera shot, angle, framing, lighting and editing are also discussed if needed. The method employed to examine the lyrics is traditional literary analysis. Lyrics are considered here as specific poems whose meanings can be fully understood only in connection with music.

Little has been published by academics about female pop-music performers, hence the research relied on the results of work done on women’s representations in related areas. The only available studies concerned directly with women’s pop-music performances and greatly helpful in the analyses offered in this work are: The Sex Revolts by Simone Reynolds and Joy Press[6] discussing rock’n’roll rebellion and women’s rock performances, and Black Noise by Tricia Rose[7] examining black women’s place in rap music and black pop-music culture in general. However, both books deal with the women pop-artists who are either different from those discussed in this paper or whose works come from a period earlier than the 1990’s. This study investigates women’s performances that can be considered innovative or controversial and shows how the female pop-artists of the nineties have contributed to the ongoing process of women’s empowerment.

The field of pop-music culture has not been thoroughly investigated by feminist scholars, yet the pop-media and the way they represent women seem to be one of the favourite subjects of feminist studies. An interesting proposition put forward by feminists is their conspiracy theory postulating that the “[m]edia are bastions of male privilege spurred on to keep feminism at bay.”[8] This perspective is partially backed up in film studies whose findings are helpful in the analysis of music videos because videos can be considered as short filmic forms accompanied by a soundtrack. Questions on gender in film studies centre on representations of men and women on the screen as well as on viewers reactions to what they see. A classical text here is Laura Mulvey’s article “Visual pleasures and narrative cinema”, in which she argues that classic American films give priority to the so-called ‘male gaze.’ According to Mulvey there are two strategies used by men to represent the female. The first aims at turning the woman into a fetish (the idea of fetishising women by men is borrowed from Freud’s theory) and the other, concerning the narrative role of the woman, places her in her due position in the patriarchal order - she is either punished or reintegrated into a romantic relationship with the man.[9]

Another academic discipline concerned with women’s representations is art history which far predates media studies in examining the visual constructions of women. Art extends its influence onto contemporary advertising, photography and pop-music videos. The art historian John Berger claims in his Ways of Seeing that Western art poses women, nude or partially clothed, for the benefit of the masculine spectator.[10] This cultural tradition appears to be internalised by women themselves. “They do to themselves what men do to them, they survey, like men, their own femininity”.[11] Another art historian, Marina Warner, demonstrates in her Monuments and Maidens that images of women have repeatedly signified qualities of a symbolic nature (e.g. Eve, Statue of Liberty, etc.)[12]. According to her, “[m]en often appear as themselves, as individuals, but women attest the identity and value of somebody else or something else[13]

In contrast to what has been indicated in the above studies, this paper attempts to show how female pop-music performers of the nineties strive to represent themselves differently to the tradition of constructing the woman as an object of voyeuristic contemplation or as an individual deprived of her own identity. The study draws on the ideas of feminism and post-modernism, two cultural movements whose concepts and objectives appear to be of great use for the discussion of women’s pop-music performances.

In agreement with the paper’s central argument that women claim empowerment through pop-music forms, the three parts of the study will explore three different aspects of women’s empowering experience: emotional strength, free expression of sexuality, and position in society.

Today’s British women pop-music artists are a non-homogenous group divided by ethnicity, nationality and class and the present paper does not deal with the whole spectrum of women’s pop-music productions. It draws cultural conclusions only from a small sample of female pop-music works of avant-garde character which seem to reflect the larger cultural phenomenon of women’s quest for empowerment and throw some light on the positive transformation of the media representations of women.

 

THE EMOTIONAL TRAUMA OF BEING A WOMAN

I think it’s a fascinating time to be a woman, particularly with the millennium changes about to happen, the shift in power toward women, and our perception of women as being strong leaders and having viable opinions and creative things to say. Sheryl Crow[14]

Cultural studies, informed by feminism, focuses on the unequal position of men and women within social structures. Key areas investigated include: the family, work and sexuality. The devaluation of women’s role, whether as mothers, workers or sexual partners, has always been of central concern to feminist activists. This part deals with a sample of women’s pop-music songs from the nineties and concentrates exclusively on the intimate ground of personal relationships and female identity seen in terms of self-perception, attitude towards the self and emotional development. The songs studied here are a response to profound female anxiety and vulnerability associated either with sexual intimacy or with the social implications of being a woman in the patriarchal and highly commercial environment.

In the course of the analysis, two dominant types of women’s experience have emerged:

1) inner loneliness, disintegration and estrangement as the effects of a weak and undeveloped sense of self;

2) a sense of power resulting from inner transformation and resistance to the power imbalance between men and women;

The two types of experience are considered here under two analytical categories that organise this part into two consecutive sections: women’s complaint and women’s rebellion.

The first section, a rock-music illustration of women’s emotional crisis, exposes the demand for empowerment by pointing to the sphere of identity and intimate relationships which needs to be substantially improved. The demand for women’s empowerment in the area of personal life has been already formulated in the famous feminist creed: “The personal is political”. “The personal is political” highlights the fact that the dynamics of personal relationships, let alone the experience of falling in love, is determined by the social relations of power between the sexes. Love is usually heralded as the enemy of power, something which can save women from oppression. Feminists have challenged this idea and have demonstrated critically how “personal” areas such as sexual relationships, marriage, motherhood and friendship are socially constructed and organised in ways which benefit men at the expense of women. This situation, according to feminists, should be addressed and changed by women themselves.[15] In this context, the second section shows how women’s demand for empowerment is being implemented by women pop-music artists who boldly and assertively address the emotional pains inflicted on them by men and the pressures of society.

The material used here consists of pop-song lyrics and the music accompanying them. Some lyrics are extremely important carriers of the meanings which is not to say that the music can be left out from the analysis. For it is music that underpins the whole performance and provides the emotional intensity so crucial for the reception of the pop-song message. It even happens that the music expresses the message better than the words themselves Therefore, the music frame is duly considered and discussed here.

The pop-music groups and their vocalists whose work is examined here are:

  • Skin - the vocalist of Skunk Anansie group (see Appendix)
  • Beth Gibbons - the vocalist of Portishead group (see Appendix)

 

WOMEN’S COMPLAINT

This section examines three songs by female pop-music performers, exposing the emotional condition of women who are involved in deep conflict with themselves. It is often said that the pop-image of an unhappy woman is based on self-pity and a foolish sentimental posture. It must be admitted that this is indeed the case in many women’s pop-songs of today. Slogans and clichés are willingly employed by a great number of female artists to attract mass audiences. However, from this vast ground of “pop-music pulp” looms a rock music terrain generally considered as more interesting and valuable. The songs presented are carefully chosen examples of female rock music creativity exploring women’s loneliness, victimisation and estrangement. These issues are very creatively addressed by women performers who thus boldly demand women’s empowerment.

100 ways to be a good girl[16] by Skunk Anansie speaks of a violent quarrel between lovers, in which the woman takes on the role of a victim totally dependent on the man for her happiness and mental stability. The man, consciously or not, becomes her oppressor. He is the one who holds power and whose rage is able to devastate the woman’s sense of security.

Shielding from unexpected fury

Frightened survivor in my world too shy to see

The next lines well illustrate the common conviction that, in a quarrel, the woman should yield to the man and try to appease him even at the cost of her inner beliefs and suffering. The woman from the song first seems rebellious and shows strong feelings of anger (“I flew into a rage”) but later becomes totally compliant and bears the brunt of the violent argument:

Softly I speak softly I’m dying

Crushed by your power by my willingness to bleed

This short confession speaks of female suffering and proneness to emotional masochism. She is so powerless in relation to men that eventually she turns the aggression against herself, blood being the expression of her inner pain and turmoil. “Blood is pain made visible, a transgression between inner and outer”.[17] In the ancient times “[b]loodletting was a healing practice[18], here, similarly it is purging of unacceptable emotions. Further lines, being a powerful metaphor of crucifixion, express similar distress:

Crucify me..

With isolation

Crucify me...

Inside my private hell

The crucifix, the symbol of Christian religion, greatly enhances the power of expression by bringing to our minds the agony, death and sacrifice of Jesus Christ. By invoking such imagery, the extremities of pain and distress have been efficiently conveyed. The crucifix is also a symbol of victimization. In the lyrics the role of a victim is assigned to the woman. The request for the symbolic crucifixion is the most desperate expression of inner rupture and hopelessness. The state of emotional distress brings women to despair and mental masochism. The refrain of the song definitely confirms its compliant stance.

I know 100 ways to be a good girl

100 ways my willingness to please

‘Good girl’ is a phrase denoting an obedient and submissive child. The vocal technique employed in the refrain is also highly significant in expressing inner humility and abjection. The voice - trembling and fractured - turns into a scream of mounting despair. It finally breaks down to admit the painful truth (Still I’m alone I’m alone... alone...). This is a confession of deep loneliness and estrangement, the state which makes the woman an “emotional wreck”

Numb by Portishead[19] is another example of a song speaking of female loneliness and mental disintegration. Already in the first stanza there appears a motive of losing the way frequently encountered in the lyrics of the group:

Unable ... so lost

I can’t find my way

I’m searching ... but I’ve never seen...

Typically for Portishead, the message is not openly stated but has to be figured out by listeners themselves. The song’s motif of the lost way can be interpreted here as a metaphor of disturbed inner harmony and a feeling of insecurity and anxiety caused by the lack of emotional balance and fulfilment. Such an emotional state seems to be typical for a woman who cannot adjust herself to the reality, feels alienated and not fully fitting into the harmony of things. She is haunted by the feeling of loneliness which she finds difficult to suppress:

‘Cause a child roses like...

Tries to reveal...

What I feel...

And it is lo...o...o...nely

And it just won’t leave me alone

A child is a metaphor for the sub-conscious, the unruly ‘id’ whose confusing voice is incessantly heard. Further lines reinforce the message of inner rupture and disintegration:

I can’t understand myself anymore

‘Cause I’m still feeling lonely ... Feeling so un-wholly

The sense of inner emptiness, which is also acutely present, is represented here by unbearable silence:

And this silence

This silence I can’t bear

The whole song is permeated by the overwhelming sensation of fear, skilfully conveyed at the musical level. The song starts with sounds resembling unintelligible babbling of a child, weird scrapes and stifled shrieks. In the background, the low beat of drums imposes a slow pulsating rhythm. The psychedelic music creates a bizarre mysterious atmosphere of inscrutable sub-consciousness. The song ends with several rhythmical thuds imitating a heart-beat. This creates the impression that the music tries to echo ‘the inner biological music’ of the body. The last words of the lyrics sound subdued as if coming from a distance (“A lady of war...”). This is a war against oneself, or in other words, with the sub-conscious insurgent ‘id’ getting the upper hand of the conscious ‘ego’ The inner conflict results in the emotional devastation and the eventual self-aggressive attitude. Such a posture constitutes a transgression against the natural state of inner harmony into which a human being is born.

The pop-songs presented above reveal the preoccupation of female artists with the deep emotional confusion experienced by today’s women. The devastating psychological states, such as profound loneliness, estrangement, emotional masochism and, finally, a destructive passion for a man, all illustrate the gloomy secrets of the modern woman’s soul that need to be healed by developing the inner sense of emotional power.

WOMEN’S REBELLION

“..founded on the mutual recognition of two liberties; the lovers would then experience themselves both as self and as other: neither would give up transcendence, neither would be mutilated ... For the one and the other, love would be a revelation of self and enrichment of the world.”[20] Simone de Beauvoir

The pop-songs presented in this section represent a call for women’s rebellion. The ‘rebellion’ means the rejection of such personal relationships with men which are emotionally hurtful for women as well as resistance against social pressures which suppress the woman’s freedom to be herself. Ironically enough, women who fall prey to the male-centred and highly commercial set-up of power in modern society often become willing participants in their own exploitation. In response to that, some women pop singers propose several ways of shedding the culturally fixed women’s roles which make them emotional victims both in relationships with men and in society at large.

A good pop-song example of the attempt to change power relations between the man and the woman is Portishead’s “Glory box[21]. It describes the emotional state of a woman involved in a relationship and her attempt to negotiate conditions on which the relationship is to be based to satisfy her. In the first stanza the lyrical ‘I’ voices her intention to leave since her emotional needs haven’t been fulfilled:

I’m so tired...

Playing with this bow and arrow

I’m gone give my heart away

Leave it for the other girls to play

The state of being “so tired” is the expression of inner dissatisfaction and exhaustion. The intensity of the feeling is also well conveyed on the musical level. The song starts with a very soft, quiet sound of the violin that grows louder and more intense. When it finally reaches the peak, the vocalist bursts out with the words (“I’m so tired”). In further lines two symbolic elements appear: a bow and an arrow. These are the attributes of mythological Cupid, an irresponsible, malicious boyish God playing with human feelings and treating love lightly as a kind of game. The idea of love he represents is rather common in modern culture, thus love in the song is reduced to the Cupid’s game. It is trivialised and as such rejected by the lyrical ‘I’. She gives up the game for the sake of mature affection expressed in the lines:

Give me the reason to love you

Give me a reason to be a woman

where she demands from her man an effort to change his attitude. Her concept of love is closer to the one represented by Eros - an ancient symbol of sexual passion and the depth of feeling, while the light-hearted and irresponsible love symbolised by Cupid seems to be the man’s idea. This is reflected in her critique of the partner, in which his immaturity and narcissism are ironically exposed:

So why don’t you start being a man

Just take a little look from outside ... if you can

The position of the man, so far loved and adored is now seriously endangered by the woman’s criticism. The second stanza speaks of the ‘victory’ of the woman who has finally found the strength to reject the harmful bond suppressing her freedom.

From this time unchained

I’m looking at the different pictures

Through this new frame of mind

A thousand flowers could bloom

Move over ..

And give them some room...

This part of the song is a symbolic liberation scene. It well reflects the empowering catharsis that comes after the inner rebellion against the constraining and emotionally abusive relationship with the man. The stanza is a rejection of the common idea that women are happy only when attached to men, which pressurises them into persisting even in the most oppressive intimate relations that should otherwise be dissolved. Here, the woman is “unchained”, feeling powerful and happy after rejecting oppressive commitments.

Skunk Anansie’s lyrics to the song “Weak[22] is also inspired by the need to change the conventions of heterosexual relationships. The song depicts women’s revolution against abusive treatment at the hands of men and t[23]he protest takes the form of hysteria observed both on the verbal and musical levels. The lyric teems with hysterical expressions of pain, anger and despair caused by a frustrated love relationship (e.g. “love last home, fucking mess, tears flying home, heart with no space for air”). There is also a hysterical reproach conveyed by the lines:

With this tainted soul

In this weak young heart

Am I too match for you...

The vocal technique through which the reproach is articulated is very significant for the song’s message, adding to it a great deal of emotional intensity. The voice is high-pitched, whining in lament and at moments screaming with sudden rage. The emotionally painful things are violently thrown out of the singer’s system. The reproof is shouted out several times as if the singer were slipping out of control in a bout of hectic frenzy. The same mad hysterical voice of the vocalist is used in the refrain:

Weak as I am, no tears for you

Deep as I am, I’m no one’s fool

Weak as I am...

Admitting weakness and yet asserting dignity, albeit in a hysterical way, constitutes an interesting display of empowerment. The psychological phenomenon of hysteria has long been associated with typically feminine behaviour. “In the psychoanalysis hysteria is associated with the murky, turbulent realm of the feminine”. The feminists have discovered that “[i]n the Middle Ages and the 19th century alike women grew up in conditions of extreme sexual repression, hysteria was the form of revolt, the force of desire prevented from expressing itself either in action or language, reasserted itself in psychosomatic symptoms or eruption of glossolalia”. [24] Women’s pop-artists have re-imagined hysteria into a powerful release of emotional tensions which constitutes one of the effective vehicles of female revolt. This is exactly the strategy of rebellion used by Skin in Weak. As a violent form of emotional nudism, hysteria has been turned by the artist into the cultural spectacle of female empowerment.

Skunk Anansie’s song “Rise up[25] is another call for women’s rebellion where the process of defending the woman’s right to be herself takes place. In the first stanza, the lyrical ‘I’ describes the woman’s qualities with the pairs of adjectives:

You are too cool to be smart,

too hard to be sane,

too sad to be high,

..............

too wise to be cool,

too deep to be good,

too weak to be sold

The first adjective in each pair describes the woman as she really is: naturally wise, sensitive and strong. The remaining adjectives may be interpreted as qualities expected from the woman by society but contradictory to her true nature. The other interesting point made in the description is that the female is portrayed as weak - but only if judged in the light of today’s cultural priorities. The last line of the stanza pointedly highlights the stance: “you’re too weak to be sold” meaning that the average woman is of little value in the patriarchal, highly commercialised society where the emphasis lies on what is attractive enough to be marketable. This attitude turns the woman into a desirable commodity, depriving her of the right to be herself. In the song the courage to retain the woman’s true self is strongly asserted by the vocalist:

(...) but that’s what you are

(...) You don’t have to run

These words are a token of self-respect and courage to be what one is. Vulnerability and sensitivity are considered here an asset and not indications of weakness that ought to be rightly valued and appreciated. The refrain calls for open revolution: “You’ve got to rise up, sweet woman child.” The call addressing the female as a “sweet woman child” both encourages her to rebellion with a term of endearment (“a sweet child”) and exposes her powerlessness as an individual unaware of her rights and unable to wield control. The introduction of the imperative form (“Rise up.../ Rise up...”) urges women to discard passivity. The second stanza serves as an illustration of how false identity imposed on women by society and culture gradually crumbles:

You’re losing all of your good convictions

Your integrity slowly waters down

Never mind your soul convictions

Nevermind, nevermind, nevermind it all

Good convictions”, articulated by the vocalist with an ironic undertone, signify patriarchal and commercial norms suppressing women’s freedom and self-realisation. The same adjective “good” appears earlier in the line: “You’re too wise to be good” - where it takes on a sarcastic meaning of being obedient and easily manipulated. The music is also of crucial importance to the lyric’s defiant style. The grunge, hard-core sounds perfectly serve the objectives of the female revolution. The revolution is understood here as inner resistance - refusal to recognise culturally imposed identity (of being high, cool etc.) and the assertion of the inner sensitive self.

 

British female pop-music artists of the 1990’s have come up with various forms of rebellious songs that reclaim power for women and contribute to the demand for and process of women’s empowerment. The ways of affirming women’s power, most often mentioned in the songs, include: negotiating the terms of relationships with men which satisfy women and strong assertion of women’s needs; abandoning an emotionally oppressive partner, changing one’s weakness into strength when resisting male dominance, and an open revolt against false feminine identity imposed by culture, to stop being an ‘emotional victim’. Thus women’s empowerment as interpreted by female pop-music vocalists is to be achieved mainly by restoring one’s self-esteem as well as by assertiveness in personal relationships with men.

MUSIC VIDEOS - THE POST-MODERN FORM OF WOMEN’S EXPRESSION

 

I’m a bitch

I’m a lover

I’m a child

I’m a mother

I’m a sinner

I’m a saint

I do not feel ashamed

Meredith Brooks, ‘Bitch’

 

This part deals with one performer, Skin of Skunk Anansie, who functions here as an example of how women pop-music performers of the nineties represent themselves through the post-modern, audio-visual medium of music videos. The emphasis is put on the idea of women’s empowerment that is so well reflected in numerous other video performances by women pop singers which the size of this paper means cannot be discussed. The term ‘performance’ is used here in a broad sense for those forms of musical events which are either live or pseudo-live. The music video is a form of pseudo-live performance which also incorporates ‘live’ recordings from music clubs or rock festivals. The general observation frequently made about music videos is that, due to their preoccupation with visual style, among other things, they are key examples of post-modern texts. Music videos are considered as visual frames - ideal forms of performance which, due to their eclecticism and intertextuality, well represent post-modern style in artistic expression. Cultural historians and theorists treat videos as entertainments that embody postmodernism. They have pointed to the fact that they combine commercial and artistic image production and thus abolish traditional boundaries between the image and its real life referent. It has been also suggested that the music video spectator has become decentred and fragmented, no longer able to distinguish fiction from reality.[26]

The music video as a vehicle for inexhaustible post-modern forms of artistic expression is often used by pop-music stars as their favourite performing medium and therefore constitutes the site of the most interesting performance practices. Female pop-music singers, whose creativity is discussed in this part, successfully use video-forms to express themselves freely. Their bold, controversial acting is a means by which they claim empowerment both as women and as pop-artists.

Treated as texts, the music videos chosen for analysis are approached holistically. As they are partly derived from film forms, the analysis uses the terminology of film studies and looks at their cinematic aspects such as camera techniques, lighting, setting, use of colour and editing.[27] The nature of the video as a ‘star text’ requires close examination of the singer’s performance. His/her outward appearance (make-up, clothing) and body language (poses, movements and dance techniques) must be carefully analysed. Another important aspect of reading music videos is the sound-vision relation Roy Shuker in his book Understanding Popular Music argues that “a musicology of the music video image is the basis for understanding how to undertake a credible textual studies”.[28] Apart from the music, which largely determines the video imagery, the lyrics are also of crucial importance. In cases where the visual side of the videos constitutes a description or a pictorial extenuation of the lyric’s message, their verbal side will also be carefully examined.

The video and performer included in the analysis is Charlie Big Potato by the group Skunk Anansie - Skin (see Appendix) It has been chosen because it features a British pop-music artist and its main theme is the demand of women’s empowerment.

 

WOMEN IN ROCK: A TOMBOY

Simon Frith and Angela McRobbie have identified a male type of pop-music which they labelled “rock-cock”. This term is best explained as “music making in which performance is explicit, crude and often aggressive expression of male sexuality”.[29] “Rock-cock” performers are described as “dominating, boastful and constantly seeking to remind the audience of their prowess and control”.[30] The mainstream women pop-music performers promote two basic images. One of them is dominated by self-pity and the need to be loved by the man; the other valorises female sexual appeal which is to court the male gaze. From this dichotomy of male and female pop-music performance emerge two quite opposite pictures of a pop-music artist. The man is an active hard-rocking performer whereas the woman is a relatively subdued artist frequently featured as a sex object. However, there has always been a marginal group of female performers trying to break the stereotype and offer an alternative performance style. It was only in the nineties when they managed to come to the fore and make their presence known worldwide, largely through access to the use of the increasingly popular video form.

The style that Skin of Skunk Anansie represents in the video clip Charlie Big Potato is that of a tomboy. She features in the clip as a performer who seeks empowerment by impersonating to a high degree the toughness, independence and irreverence of the “rock-cock” rebels. She adopts a highly androgynous image which links her more with the tradition of typically male rather than female rock performance styles. This image, however, well expresses the empowerment of a pop-music artist by abandoning the stereotypical MTV picture of a passive, kittenish diva and replacing her with an active, adventurous woman-performer.

Charlie Big Potato by Skunk Anansie is an extremely dynamic video promoting strong, fast beat of hard-core music. There are two different sets in which the video is shot. The first one displays a wet, filthy, disgusting bathroom whose dirty walls, lit by dim greyish light, swarm with cockroaches The woman vocalist - Skin, half-lying on the floor, is mostly filmed in profile with low and high angle shots. These perspectives are quite significant to the way the vocalist is presented. When she is slowly rising from the floor the side view of her splashed legs and arms resembles a picture of a gigantic spider-like insect. Not only the posture but the look of the performer is striking as well. Skin is dressed all in black which marks her out against the greyish background. The black colour of her clothes merges with the black tint of her skin and hides her dark body from vivid exposure. She is wearing a tight sleeveless outfit in the pattern similar to that of a coat of mail. Her knee-long trousers, quite baggy at the ends, match her heavy unlaced military boots. Skin’s head is totally shaven, she is wearing barely visible make-up and no jewellery so as not to embellish this crude, mannish look. Her body, although slim, is of quite an athletic and solid frame. Her feminine features are not emphasized at all, which seems to be a conscious attempt at desexualising her persona. Her man-like looks fit the violent atmosphere of the whole clip and the subsequent shot depicts her in a scene typical for “rock-cock” The talent is driven by some invisible power moving her body around - twisting it, dragging it over the filthy floor and finally thrusting her against the wall. She seems to wrestle with some mysterious destructive force.

The rest of the video scenes, set in a dark room, constitute the most dynamic parts of the whole clip. Full shots display the live performance of the band. All the members are dressed in dark colours and Skin is wearing a black tight overall covering her body up to her neck. In a series of a waist and head shots, along with numerous medium and extreme close-ups, camera records the band’s vigorous and highly professional performance. The lighting and camera techniques greatly enhance the video’s dynamism. The pitch darkness of the room is incessantly shattered by bright flashlights exposing only fragments of the set and the rapid editing disrupts linear time by creating a series of disjoined collage-like images. Skin is presented in a number of frames featuring her abrupt, violent movements but hardly ever exposing her whole body. The way she experiences music is extremely vigorous. She is skipping hard, bending and straightening up again, jerking her head and forcefully pushing her arms up. Her elbows are most of the time extended as if in the gesture of self-defence. The sharp rhythm and strong beat of the song, along with Skin’s violent dance style, match the rapid editing and sheer physical aggression of the video. The singer’s charismatic and electrifying performance fully expresses the rebelliousness and power of the female artist. Her androgynous look is very provocative and breaks the stereotype of a sexy and kittenish female performer.

Rock - the “music world” of the angry young men - has only recently become a home for female belligerence. Female rock rebellion makes use of two different strategies of women’s participation in the men-dominated rock‘n’roll culture. One of them, as discussed above, is the presentation of the woman as a more androgynous individual whose ‘girlish’ attributes have been suppressed to a large extent. This ‘tomboy’ approach expresses resistance to the commonly accepted style of the female pop-music artist featuring either as a weak and self-pitying creature or as sexual temptress performing for the benefit of male gaze.

CONCLUSION

Women’s pop-music creativity largely reflects the collective consciousness of modern women and constitutes an excellent ground to investigate different signs of women’s desire for empowerment. The paper, examining selected British women’s pop-songs and video work from the nineties, has attempted to show the areas of women’s empowerment most frequently taken up by women pop-music performers:

1.                          the emotional condition and position of women in heterosexual relationships and in society generally;

2.                          public displays of female sexual freedom, including an androgynous blend of traditionally established male and female roles. The songs and videos discussed here articulate female fears, needs and pleasures which have long been relegated to the margin of public discourse. They successfully sustain the cultural dialogue with male and female audiences responding to a variety of issues relevant to women: dominant nations of femininity, feminism, questions of sexuality, identity crisis, and trauma linked to racial abuse.

Female pop-music creativity functions as a means of releasing painful tensions and dissatisfaction and a way to express trials and tribulations that the condition of being a heterosexual woman entails. In the studied songs, the woman’s vulnerability, sensitivity and the ability of deep emotional involvement are definitely considered as assets and not, as assumed so far, an indication of weakness. They build up women’s power and wisdom and therefore should be widely appreciated. The famous feminist creed “Personal is political” finds its lyrical realisation in the female pop-music works presented in this study. All of them strongly emphasise that the struggle for happiness and well-being, tokens of modern women’s empowerment, starts at the level of personal emotions and intimate relationships.

Another way in which women artists of the nineties seek and represent their new power is posing new challenges to the male-dominated rock tradition. The image of a woman-singer established by MTV - a kittenish, sexy diva, a commercial bait to attract male audiences - is firmly rejected and replaced by a hard-rocking, sexually liberated, and self-possessed performer who boldly breaks gender stereotypes and seriously undermines the established position of rock-cock representatives. Charismatic and wild performances of pop-music women’s talents exude power and confidence offering the experience of empowerment to millions of female viewers. Even those female singers who, like Skin, appear too tomboyish or too masculine to be viewed as representatives of women rock rebellion also contribute to the process of women’s empowerment by rejecting the star-role and confusing male viewers by not yielding easily to sexual objectification.

In general, the paper has attempted to show - on a small sample of songs and performers - how the demand for women’s empowerment was being realised in British pop-music songs of the nineties Pop-music, a powerful multidirectional cultural device, seems to be currently working for the greater benefit of women artists, giving them new opportunities to express themselves freely in public. Pop-music creativity, producing and reflecting cultural trends, should not be underestimated as a source of insight into broader cultural transformations in the society that generates them.

 

APPENDIX

SKUNK ANASIE

Skunk Anansie is a famous British rock group with the vocalist Skin. The band’s name is both a historical reference and a warning. The band explains it: “Anansie is a West Indian six-legged spiderman, Skunk - a cute little critter that can turn truly nasty when messed with.”[31] The group debut album Paranoid and sunburnt was named as one of the Top Ten releases of 1995 by Time magazine. Two of the album tracks “Weakand “Charity” became Top 20 UK hits. Skin’s charismatic persona and the bands incendiary live shows attracted the attention of film director Kathryn Bigelow who cast Skunk Anansie in her futuristic apocalypse film Strange Days, in which the band performs their song “Selling Jesus” live in an outdoor scene. Skunk Anansie’s success has been largely due to their relentless touring and they made successful headlining tours in Japan, Australia and the United States. Another of Skunk Anansie albums Stoosh (1997) is said to incorporate sounds from punk inspired hardcore to new soul to wicked, chill-out grooves. Skin sums it up: “It’s got a power, emotion, humour” Skunk Anansie has been criticised for being politically involved. The vocalist retorts: “We’ve been slagged off for being political, but music doesn’t have to be about feeling good all the time (...) The minute you run away from politics, you run away from life.” Their album Post orgasmic chill (1999) which only confirmed Skunk Anansie’s popularity and musical genius.[32] The tracks discussed in the paper include: “Weak,” “100 hundred ways to be a good girl”, “Little baby swastika”, “Intellectualise my blackness”, “Rise up” from Paranoid and Sunburnt (1995); “Here I stand” from Stoosh (1997); “Charlie Big Potato” from Post orgasmic chill (1999).

 


AND HERE I STAND

And here I stand

Redskin fist of power

Clawing at the strains of racism

It turns to black,

‘Cause you’re so very credible

But you keep losing track

‘Cos you don’t see, my colour

In your melting pot of love

Where every fucker’s brown

So here I stand

Knee deep in your soiled heritage

(That’s) so charmingly underground

So here I stand, (stand s-t-a-n-d) (x4)

So here we stand, I’m looking at my sad, sad eyes

They slowly turn at rage

Oh what a shame

I can’t contain my basic nigga-rage

And lust for violence

So here we are

The cry goes out for war

London’s East end burning to the ground

So here we stand

Blackened fist of power

Same old scarred-up faces we condemn

 

INTELLECTUALISE MY BLACKNESS

I hit him with a piece of his philosophy

Anglo-Saxon muck in his type of greed

What did he do to deserve such hate...

(He tried to) intellectualise my blackness

He put on his leathers and his reggae trainers

Threw away Bob Marley put on maxi priest

I told him ‘bout the problems of his conscious deeds

(When he tried to) intellectualise my blackness

He tried to summarize

To institutionalise

Still I could recognize

He was materialized

He tried to intellectualise my blackness

To make it easier for his whiteness

He tried to intellectualise my blackness, save me

He’s always tryin’ to make up for his little slips

The joke about the nigga and the yellow nip

Then he tells me I’m so different from those other shits

(When he tries to) intellectualise my blackness

Motherfucker don’t you lecture - rise me

Don’t you ever try to lecturise me

 

LITTLE BABY SWASTIKA

Who put the little baby swastika

On the wall...

Who put the little baby swastika

On the wall...

Wasn’t very high...

Couldna been more than four years old

That’s who put the little baby swastika on the wall

Who put the little baby nigga-head

On the wall...

Who put the little baby nigga-head

On the wall...

The eyes were so big couldna been more than baby scrawls

That’s who put the little baby nigga-head on the wall

You rope them in young (x2)

So small, so innocent, so young

So delicately done

Grown up in your poison

Who put the little baby k’s up on the wall

Who put the little baby k’s up on the wall

Dey got em in a line I bet they wished they couldna sprayed up more

That’s who put the little baby k’s on the wall

Who kicked the little baby’s head

Against the wall...

Who kicked the little baby’s head

Against the wall...

Who kicked the little baby’s head

Against the wall...

We kicked the little baby’s head against the wall

 

100 WAYS TO BE A GOOD GIRL

I caused a major war just by talking

You flew into a rage, ‘cos that’s everything you know

Childhood of violence, filled with heartache

I flew into a rage, ‘cos that’s everything I know

I know 100 ways to be a good girl

100 ways, my willingness to please

I know 100 ways to be a good girl

Still I’m alone, so alone, I’m alone, so alone (x4)

Shielding from unexpected fury

Frightened survivor in my world too shy to see

Softly I spoke softly I’m dying

Crushed by your power, by my willingness to bleed

I know 100 ways to be a good girl

100 ways, my willingness to please

I know 100 ways to be a good girl

Still I’m alone, so alone, I’m alone, so alone (x4)

Crucify me...

With isolation

Crucify me...

Inside my private hell

 

WEAK

Lost in time I can’t count the words

(I) Said when I thought they went unheard

All of those harsh thoughts so unkind

‘cos I wanted you

(And) Now I sit here I’m all alone

So here sits a fucking mess, tears fly home

A circle of angels, deep in war

‘cos I wanted you

Weak as I am, no tears for you

Weak as I am, no tears for you

Deep as I am, I’m no ones fool

Weak as I am

And what am I now but loves last home

I’m all of the soft words I once owned

If I opened my heart, there’d be no space for air

‘cos I wanted you

With this tainted soul

In this weak young heart

Am I too much for you

 

RISE-UP

You’re too cool to be smart, but that is what you are

You’re too sane to be hard, but that is what you are

You’re too sad to be high, but that is what you are

You don’t have to run

You got to rise up, sweet woman child (x3)

You’re losing your convictions

You’re too wise to be cool, but that is what you re

You’re too deep to be good, but that is what you are

You’re too weak to be sold, but that is what you are

You don’t have to run

You’re losing all of your good convictions